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KRISTIN D. HUDACEK
hypnotizability, the preferred term to describe one’s ability to experi-
ence hypnosis (Christensen, 2005). Hypnotizability is best evaluated
by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form C, developed
more than 40 years ago by Weitzenhoffer and Hilgard (1962) and now
viewed as the “gold standard” (Barabasz & Barabasz, 1992) for assess-
ing hypnotizability because of its comprehensive worldwide use and
the abundance of data supporting its validity (Barabasz, personal com-
munication, September 5, 2006).
While a hypnotized state has been described as a condition of
altered consciousness and heightened suggestibility, recent research
has reemphasized shifts in attention. For instance, by shifting the focus
of attention (Raz, 2005), hypnosis can affect the brain’s control of the
body via descending neuronal pathways. As an example, hypnosis has
been shown to alter autonomically controlled functions such as heart
rate, blood pressure, skin temperature, and regional blood flow
(Lehrer & Woolfolk, 1993). Hypnosis also has a positive effect on the
perception of pain. In a study of patients with sickle cell disease who
were taught self-hypnosis for 18 months, there was a decrease in the
number of pain days and use of pain medications (Dinges et al., 1997).
Most dramatically, hypnosis has been used as the sole analgesic in
abdominal surgery (Wicks, 1989).
In addition, hypnosis can modify the immune system. The effect of
hypnosis on the immune system was first investigated in the 1960s by
Black, Humphrey, and Niven (1963) through the use of Hypnosis with
Immune Suggestion (HWIS). In this study, participants were inoculated
with an antigen and then induced into a hypnotic state. Under hypnosis,
individuals were asked to imagine their immune cells ignoring the anti-
gen at the site of inoculation (Black et al.). Participants achieved a
relaxed state instead of overreacting to the injection mentally and bio-
logically. However, visually guided immune imagery can also be used
to up-regulate rather than down-regulate the immune response.
Subsequent studies investigating the immunological effects of hyp-
nosis have quantified the psychosomatic interactions. In a meta-
analysis of experiments involving hypnosis with immune-suggestion
interventions, Miller and Cohen found an association between the
practice of hypnosis and an elevation in secretory immunoglobulin A
(sIgA) and neutrophil adherence (2001). Hypnosis also demonstrated
an improved immunological effect in patients with herpes simplex
virus-2 (HSV-2). In a study involving 21 participants with virulent and
chronic HSV-2, 6 weeks of training in guided imagery in immune func-
tion increased natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity to HSV, improved
mood and, most important clinically, decreased recurrence (Gruzelier,
2002).
The effect of hypnosis on the immune system has been well studied
in students during exam times. In a 1996 study, 35 first-year medical
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